“The culmination of thousands of years of hatred towards the Jew occurred
when the idea and myth of history as progress coexisted with
the most perfect scientific planning of mass murder: the Shoah.”
(Baron, 1976)

 

The Holocaust, in which two-thirds of European Jewry was exterminated, confronted Western consciousness with a paradox of modernity: reason and science – the paths of liberation idealized by the Enlightenment – were merged with historical hatred. Historical hatred and scientific discourse.

The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 gave rise to new international terrorism, combined with anti-Jewish propaganda due to the Arab-Israeli conflict. The 1967 war and the global implications of Israel as a conquering and colonialist state led to the UN resolution of November 10, 1975, which stated that Zionism was a threat to world peace and security, and expressed opposition to this racist and imperialist ideology (Niremberg, 2013).

After the Holocaust, the phenomenon of anti-Semitism can be analyzed from four perspectives: governmental anti-Semitism, neo-Nazism and denial of the Shoah, Islamic anti-Semitism, and anti-Zionism, the new anti-Semitism.

How is “old” anti-Semitism different from “new” anti-Semitism?

To understand how the “old” anti-Semitism differs from the “new”, I will briefly describe each one with a view to clarifying the difference. In old anti-Semitism, there was hatred for the Jewish religion; Jews were regarded as collectively guilty for the Crucifixion of Jesus (the origin of the concept of “Deicide”). As explained by Dr. Yossi Goldstein (2023), four aspects of anti-Semitism derive from thisidea:

• The economic factor: Stigma of the moneylender, Jewish usurer (as arising from the New Testament)
• The political-military factor: The Crusades, starting in 1096, brought together the Christian zeal for the Holy Land and the militarism typical of European monarchies. Started with the forced conversions of Jews in the Rhine communities.
• The social factor: The “scapegoat” figure of the Jew as bearing responsibility for epidemics and miseries, such as the Black Death in 1324.
• The religious factor: The demonization of the Jew, and blood libels.

These medieval themes are revived in modern anti-Semitism, for instance, the conspiracy theory presented in “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion” by the tsarist government at the beginning of the 20th century. Modern anti-Semitism is based on the racial theory adopted by Nazism.

In the Middle Ages, the blood libel was a way of expressing hatred towards the Jew through the accusation of ritual crime. The Jews were recognized throughout the world as beings distinct from society. This was a classic case of the concept defined by 20^th century historian Baron as dislike of the unlike: aversion or hatred towards the unknown (Baron, 1978).

In modernity, this concept evolved beyond the religious issue. Baptism was no longer the solution to the Jewish question since the Enlightenment. Anti-Jewish criticism was further diverted towards nationalist expressions, and political anti-Semitism took shape.

Between nationalistic pronouncements of “dying for the country” and the fact that religions decreased their popularity considering the Enlightenment ideas, the patriotic messages quickly became a conception of racial superiority based on ties of "blood and soil" that converted reason into a voluntary union of individuals (Nirembreg, 2013).

By understanding the factors set forth above, we can now consider “new” anti-Semitism, all the events of racial hatred and xenophobia after the Holocaust and World War II. Therefore, it is no coincidence that anti-Semitic movements in recent decades have adopted the slogan “Jews out.”

According to Goldstein, current anti-Semitism must be studied with a multifaceted approach. “This implies that the old anti-Semitic hatred adopted new forms and manifestations and that it is not enough to analyze it from the perspective of medieval theological hatred or Nazi racial hatred.”

The new anti-Semitism could be glimpsed in the dissemination of Nazi literature through Internet sites and social networks, where its most extreme expression is the denial of the Holocaust, either reducing death statistics, denying the existence of the gas chambers, or relating to the extermination of the Jews as a side-effect of the war.

Another expression of the phenomenon is the theory that the Shoah was a Jewish conspiracy to make possible the creation of the State of Israel. These tendencies are reflected in anti-Zionism to express anti-Jewish arguments, such as the BSD (Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions against Israel) movement.

The same trend is reflected in sporting events, such as soccer games, as well as in musical events, which are perfect forums for manifestations of hate in the form of neo-Nazi flags and anthems. Also, the slogan “Free Palestine” can be mixed with virulent anti-Semitism that questions the existence of the State of Israel.

As Dr. Yossi Goldstein mentions in his text, “racial, ethnic and religious hatred carries a potential danger, whether against Jews or any other minority. The possible, non-obligatory end of this process can be extremist, the extermination of this minority as an internal enemy.” 

Since the sad events of October 7^th, the concept of ideological anti-Semitism has become more of a presence internationally due to its close relationship with anti-Zionism. It is important to consider whether anti-Zionism is in fact a form of anti-Semitism.

The use of this term is a complex matter, since it is the product of the evolution that hatred towards the Jew has acquired in different times and contexts, whose phenomenology can only be understood if each of its variables is studied in depth since ancient times. The factor of Jewish migration has given rise to the emergence of right-wing parties in Europe, as well as the anti-Zionist positions of international organizations that propagate in the media that the State of Israel is a threat to world peace, which reinforces the antisemitism (Bosker, 2011).

According to the IHRA (International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance), “Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities.”

However, according to The Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism, the IHRA definition is incomplete and subject to various interpretations. Therefore, experts on the subject consider the definition of anti-Semitism as follows:

“Antisemitism is discrimination, prejudice, hostility or violence against Jews as Jews (or Jewish institutions as Jews).”

The IHRA, as well as the Jerusalem Declaration on Anti-Semitism, give specific contemporary examples to illustrate anti-Semitism in public life, in religious and social spheres.

However, not all criticism of Israel can be considered anti-Semitism. It should be noted that Israel is a democratic State in which there is a diversity of reactions when a call is made to kill Jews in the name of a radical ideology.

It is considered anti-Zionism when it is said that the Jews exaggerated the Holocaust and the murders perpetuated in the gas chambers. Or making a radical denial of the Shoah, presenting it as a Jewish conspiracy to bring the State of Israel into existence. It is necessary to mention that anti-Israelism or anti-Zionism becomes palpable when the very existence of the state is delegitimized, denying Jewish self-determination, by using a speech with Jewish stereotypes, or by comparing Israel with the Nazis or with state terrorism.

It is essential to highlight that the Arab-Israeli conflict is commonly used in this type of discourse, which is why it is considered anti-Zionism when symbols, images, or stereotypes of classic anti-Semitism are used. Also, when diaspora Jews are blamed in their countries for being more loyal to Israel than to their own nations.

To deny Israel's self-determination as a sovereign State is to deny democracy at the international level. More international public opinion is given to the ideas of radical Islam that use conspiracy theories and the old theological hatred to this day.

Reference Sources:

Bibliography:

-Barón, Salo W. (1976-1977) “Los modelos cambiantes del antisemitismo” Dispersión y Unidad. Disponible en: http://www.radiojai.com.ar/online/notiDetalle.asp?id_ Noticia=7491 [Consultado el 28 de noviembre de 2020]. 

-Bokser Liwerant, Judit (2001) “El antisemitismo: recurrencias y cambios históricos”.  Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales. México, UNAM. Pp.110-114.

-Bokser Liwerant, Judit y Yael Siman (2016) “Antisemitism in Mexico and Latin America: Recurrences and changes” en Steven, Baum et al. (eds.) Antisemitism in North America. New World, Old Hate. Leiden / Boston: Brill, pp. 121-173. 

-Della Pergola, Sergio (1993) “Jews in the European community: Sociodemographic trends and challenges” Nueva York, American Jewish Year Book.

- Goldstein, Yossi. (2016) “Nuevas formas y manifestaciones del antisemitismo en la actualidad”, en Anuario 2015-2016, Instituto de Ciencias Jurídicas, Universidad de La Matanza, Argentina. Pp. 63-80.

-Nirenberg, David, (2013) Antijudaism, The Western Tradition, Nueva York, W. W. Norton and Company.

Electronic sources:

• https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/resources/working-definitions-charters/working-definition-antisemitism.
• https://jerusalemdeclaration.org/.

 

 

 

Monica is a student of the Melton Master’s Degree, and Director of the Oraj Haim School in Mexico City